Movement of the Working Class

The working-class movement in India, which began to take shape in the late 19th century, is a testament to the growing discontent among industrial workers who faced severe exploitation under colonial rule. This movement, which went through several phases, eventually became a crucial aspect of India’s struggle for independence.

Early Initiatives: The Dawn of Worker Consciousness

The origins of the working-class movement can be traced back to the late 19th century when industrialization was slowly taking root in India. With the establishment of railways, cotton, and jute mills, a new class of workers emerged. However, these workers were subjected to harsh conditions, with long working hours, minimal wages, and unsafe working environments.

Pioneering Efforts: The initial efforts to address these issues were largely philanthropic and reformist in nature. Sasipada Banerjea, a social reformer from Bengal, was one of the first to recognize the plight of the workers. In the 1870s, he founded the Workingmen’s Club and launched a newspaper, Bharat Shramjeevi, dedicated to workers’ rights. Around the same time, Narain Meghajee Lokhanday in Bombay took significant steps towards organizing workers. He established the Bombay Mill and Millhands Association in 1880, which was one of the first organized attempts to give workers a platform to express their grievances.

These early movements were, however, limited in scope and largely confined to specific regions. They were also not directly linked to the larger nationalist struggle, as early nationalist leaders were more focused on political reforms and were hesitant to engage deeply with labor issues, fearing that stringent labor laws might harm the nascent Indian industries.

Labor Involvement during the Swadeshi Movement: A Shift Towards Political Engagement

The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908), which emerged as a response to the partition of Bengal by the British, marked a turning point in the involvement of the working class in the broader nationalist struggle. The movement encouraged the use of indigenous products and boycotting British goods, which naturally aligned with the interests of Indian industrial workers.

Strikes and Worker Participation: During this period, there was a notable increase in strikes and labor unrest. For instance, workers in the jute mills of Bengal went on strike, and there were similar movements in the cotton mills of Bombay. Leaders like Ashwini Coomar Banerjea and Subramaniya Siva played pivotal roles in mobilizing workers. These strikes, though often spontaneous and unorganized, were significant as they marked the beginning of the workers’ active participation in the national movement.

However, despite the increased participation of workers in the Swadeshi Movement, the movement remained primarily a middle-class phenomenon, and the working-class demands were not fully integrated into the broader nationalist agenda.

Labor Movements During and After World War I: The Birth of Organized Labor

The period surrounding World War I (1914-1918) was a transformative era for the working-class movement in India. The war exacerbated existing economic hardships, which led to widespread discontent among the laboring population. This discontent manifested in more organized and sustained efforts to address workers’ rights, marking a significant shift from earlier, more sporadic movements. The interwar years also saw the formalization of labor struggles through the establishment of trade unions and the introduction of legislative measures.

Impact of World War I on Indian Labor: Economic Hardships and Discontent

World War I had a profound impact on the Indian economy, and by extension, on the lives of industrial workers. The war effort required increased production of goods, especially textiles, metals, and other materials vital for military needs. This surge in demand led to overworking of the labor force, but it was not matched by corresponding improvements in wages or working conditions. Instead, the war years were characterized by soaring inflation, with the prices of basic commodities rising steeply. Workers, who were already earning meager wages, found it increasingly difficult to make ends meet.

This period also saw a significant increase in the cost of living. The wages of workers, particularly in the textile mills of Bombay and the jute mills of Bengal, failed to keep pace with inflation. The disparity between wages and the cost of living caused widespread frustration and anger among the working class. Moreover, the British government’s focus on the war effort meant that there was little attention paid to the grievances of the workers, further deepening their resentment.

The Birth of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): A National Platform for Workers

The growing unrest among workers set the stage for the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920. This was a landmark event in the history of the Indian labor movement, as it was the first attempt to create a national organization that could unite various labor unions across the country. The formation of the AITUC was largely driven by the need to give workers a stronger, more unified voice in their struggle against exploitation.

Lala Lajpat Rai, a prominent nationalist leader, played a key role in the establishment of the AITUC. His involvement signified the growing recognition of labor issues within the broader nationalist movement. The inaugural session of the AITUC was held in Bombay (now Mumbai) in October 1920, and it brought together representatives from labor unions across India, including Bombay, Bengal, and Madras (now Chennai). The congress was attended by not only workers and labor leaders but also by nationalists who recognized the importance of incorporating the working class into the struggle for independence.

The AITUC aimed to provide a coordinated approach to labor issues and to represent the interests of workers at a national level. Its formation marked the beginning of a more organized and systematic labor movement in India. The congress focused on addressing the immediate needs of workers, such as fair wages, better working conditions, and the right to organize. However, it also had broader political aims, including the fight against colonial exploitation and the demand for India’s independence.

The 1920 Bombay Textile Strike: A Milestone in Labor Protest

One of the earliest and most significant actions taken by the AITUC was its involvement in the 1920 Bombay Textile Strike. This strike, which involved more than 150,000 workers, was one of the largest and most well-organized labor protests in India up to that point. The textile workers of Bombay, who had been subjected to extremely harsh working conditions, long hours, and low pay, decided to take a stand against their exploitation.

The strike was led by labor leaders such as Joseph Baptista and N.M. Joshi, and it was supported by nationalist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The workers demanded a 50% wage hike, along with improved working conditions and the recognition of their right to form unions. The strike lasted for several weeks and brought the textile industry in Bombay to a standstill. The sheer scale of the strike and the unity displayed by the workers were unprecedented in Indian labor history.

Although the strike did not achieve all its goals, it was a significant victory in several respects. It demonstrated the power of organized labor and the potential of the working class to challenge both industrialists and the colonial government. The strike also highlighted the need for legal protections for workers, which would eventually lead to the introduction of labor laws in India.

Legislative Responses: The Trade Union Act of 1926

The success of the labor movements and the growing influence of organizations like the AITUC forced the British colonial government to take notice. In response to the increasing labor unrest and the demand for legal recognition of trade unions, the British government passed the Trade Union Act of 1926. This Act was a significant milestone in the history of the Indian labor movement as it provided legal status to trade unions, thereby allowing them to function more effectively.

The Trade Union Act laid down the conditions for the registration of trade unions, provided them with certain protections, and outlined their rights and responsibilities. For the first time, trade unions were legally recognized entities that could represent the interests of workers in negotiations with employers. The Act also protected unions from certain legal actions, such as being sued for damages during strikes, provided they acted within the law.

However, the Act was not without its limitations. While it recognized trade unions, it also imposed several restrictions on their activities. For instance, unions were required to submit detailed reports of their finances and membership, and their right to strike was limited by stringent conditions. Despite these limitations, the Trade Union Act of 1926 was a significant step forward in the institutionalization of the labor movement in India.

The Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929): Repression and Resistance

The growing strength and political alignment of the labor movement with the broader nationalist struggle led to increased repression by the British authorities. This culminated in the Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1929, one of the most infamous trials in Indian history. The case involved the arrest and trial of 31 labor leaders, including prominent figures like Muzaffar Ahmad, S.A. Dange, Shaukat Usmani, and Jatindra Nath Das, who were accused of conspiring to overthrow the British government by inciting labor strikes and promoting communist ideologies.

The trial, held in Meerut, was intended by the British government to serve as a deterrent to the growing labor movement and to discredit the leaders of the AITUC, who were increasingly seen as aligning with communist ideologies. The case was widely publicized and sparked outrage both in India and abroad. It also highlighted the British government’s fear of the growing influence of the working class and its potential to destabilize colonial rule.

Despite the harsh sentences handed down to the accused, the Meerut Conspiracy Case had the unintended effect of galvanizing the labor movement. It exposed the extent of British repression and increased solidarity among workers. The trial also drew international attention to the labor movement in India, and several organizations, including the International Labour Organization (ILO), condemned the actions of the British government.

The Meerut Conspiracy Case marked a turning point in the relationship between the labor movement and the broader nationalist struggle. It underscored the growing importance of the working class in the fight for India’s independence and highlighted the need for a united front against colonial exploitation.

The Labor Movement during and after World War II: A Period of Unrest and Consolidation

The period of the Second World War (1939-1945) witnessed a resurgence of labor activism, as the economic hardships faced by workers intensified. The war led to further inflation, scarcity of essential goods, and increased exploitation of labor, as industries were pushed to meet wartime demands.

Strikes and Repression: During this period, there was a marked increase in strikes across the country. In 1942, amidst the Quit India Movement, workers from various sectors, including railways, textile mills, and coal mines, went on strike. The British government responded with severe repression, arresting leaders and using force to break up strikes. However, these actions only served to strengthen the resolve of the working class and brought them closer to the nationalist movement.

Post-Independence: The New Challenges for the Working Class

With India’s independence in 1947, the working-class movement faced new challenges. The immediate post-independence period was marked by efforts to rebuild the economy, and the focus of the new government was on industrial development. However, the working class continued to face issues such as low wages, poor working conditions, and lack of social security.

Legislative Reforms: The newly independent Indian government recognized the importance of addressing these issues and enacted several labor laws. The Industrial Disputes Act of 1947 was one of the first significant legislations, which aimed to provide a legal framework for the resolution of industrial disputes. This was followed by the Minimum Wages Act of 1948 and the Factories Act of 1948, which sought to regulate the working conditions in factories.

The Role of Trade Unions: Trade unions continued to play a crucial role in advocating for workers’ rights in post-independence India. The AITUC, along with other unions like the Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC), which was affiliated with the Indian National Congress, became prominent voices in the labor movement. However, the post-independence period also saw the fragmentation of the labor movement along political lines, which sometimes weakened its collective strength.

Conclusion

The working-class movement in India, which began as a series of small, sporadic efforts, evolved into a powerful force that played a significant role in both the fight against colonialism and in shaping the labor policies of independent India. The movement’s journey from the early days of worker consciousness to the organized struggles of the 20th century reflects the broader socio-political changes in Indian society during this period.