Portuguese in India

The Discovery of a Sea Route to India: A Quest for Trade and Power

Following the decline of the Roman Empire in the seventh century, the Arab world rose to dominance in Egypt and Persia. This shift disrupted Europe’s direct access to coveted Indian goods, such as spices, calicoes, silk, and precious stones. The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 further exacerbated the situation. Trade routes, both land and sea (via the Red Sea), fell under Arab control, driving up prices and motivating Europeans to seek a direct sea route to India. The 15th century marked a period of Renaissance in Europe, a time of intellectual and cultural rebirth that spurred exploration. Simultaneously, shipbuilding and navigation technology advancements fueled the desire for adventurous sea voyages to the East.
Economic growth across Europe further fueled this ambition. Expanded cultivated land, agricultural improvements, and increased meat production created a greater demand for oriental luxury goods, including spices for cooking and preservation.
The wealthy city-states of Venice and Genoa, once thriving on oriental trade, could not challenge the Ottoman Turks or finance large-scale exploration. However, the stage was set for a new era of exploration as northern Europeans offered financial and manpower support to Portugal and Spain, and the Genoese contributed ships and technical expertise. Portugal emerged as a leader in the Christian resistance against Islam, embracing the Genoese spirit of exploration. Prince Henry of Portugal, known as “the Navigator,” became obsessed with finding a sea route to India. His motivation was twofold: circumventing Muslim control over existing trade routes and spreading the Christian faith. In 1454 Pope Nicholas V granted him the right to navigate “as far as India.” Although Prince Henry died before realising his dream, his efforts laid the groundwork for future Portuguese exploration.
In 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain, paving the way for Portuguese incursions into the Indian Ocean. In 1487, Bartholomew Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, confirming the existence of a sea route to India. Finally, in 1498, a Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama reached India, marking a turning point in global trade and ushering in a new era of European colonialism.

Trade to Sovereignty

Vasco Da Gama’s Arrival and Portuguese Ambitions in India:

In May 1498, the arrival of Vasco Da Gama’s ships in Calicut, guided by Gujarati pilot Abdul Majid, marked a significant turning point in Indian history. The Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin (Samuthiri), extended a warm welcome to Da Gama, recognizing the city’s prosperity as a trading hub. However, this arrival sparked apprehension among Arab traders who had long held a dominant position in the Malabar coast’s lucrative spice trade. The Portuguese aimed to disrupt this established trade network and establish their own dominance.
The Portuguese’s ambitions extended beyond mere participation in the Indian Ocean trade. For centuries, this trade involved a diverse group of participants, including Indians, Arabs, Africans, Chinese, and Javanese. These participants adhered to unspoken rules of conduct and sought profit without seeking complete control. The Portuguese, however, arrived with a different agenda. Their goal was to monopolize this highly profitable trade by excluding competitors, particularly the Arab traders who had long been key players in the region.
Vasco da Gama’s initial visit to India lasted three months, during which he acquired a valuable cargo of spices and other goods. Upon returning to Portugal, he sold this merchandise at an enormous profit in European markets. This direct access to the lucrative spice trade, particularly pepper, highlighted the immense financial gains to be made. Europeans had previously been reliant on Muslim middlemen, who often charged exorbitant prices. The Portuguese realized that by bypassing these intermediaries and establishing direct trade routes to India, they could significantly reduce costs and maximize profits.
The success of Da Gama’s voyage attracted other European merchants eager to tap into this lucrative trade. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, another Portuguese explorer, arrived in Calicut in September 1500 with the intention of establishing a trading post, or “factory.” However, tensions arose between the Portuguese and the local community, culminating in a conflict where the Portuguese factory was attacked. In response, Cabral seized Arab merchant ships in the harbor, killing crew members, confiscating cargo, and bombarding Calicut. This incident marked the beginning of a series of conflicts between the Portuguese and the existing powers in the region.
Vasco da Gama returned to India in 1501, but his aggressive approach towards the Arab merchants further strained relations with the Zamorin of Calicut. The Zamorin refused to grant the Portuguese exclusive trading rights, and Da Gama’s attacks on Arab shipping intensified the conflict. The Portuguese, under Da Gama’s leadership, established a trading factory in Cannanore, which, along with Calicut and Cochin, became important centres for Portuguese trade activities.

Francisco De Almeida’s Blue Water Policy:

Consolidating Portuguese Naval Dominance In 1505, King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Francisco de Almeida as the governor of Portuguese interests in India. Almeida’s mission was to strengthen the Portuguese presence in the region and solidify their control over maritime trade routes. To achieve this, Almeida implemented a strategy known as the Blue Water Policy, which focused on establishing Portuguese naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean.
Almeida’s policy involved building fortresses at strategic locations along the Indian coastline, including Anjadiva, Cochin, Cannanore, and Kilwa. These fortresses served as bases for Portuguese naval operations and provided protection for their trading activities. Additionally, Almeida sought to disrupt the trade of Muslim merchants, particularly those from Egypt, who posed a significant challenge to Portuguese ambitions.
Almeida faced opposition not only from the Zamorin of Calicut but also from the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt. The Sultan, supported by Venetian merchants whose trade interests were threatened by Portuguese expansion, assembled a fleet in the Red Sea to counter the Portuguese advance. In 1507, the Portuguese squadron suffered a significant defeat in a naval battle off Diu, where Almeida’s son was killed. This setback, however, only fueled Almeida’s determination to establish Portuguese dominance.
In the following year, Almeida avenged his defeat by decisively crushing the combined Egyptian and Gujarati navies in a major naval engagement. This victory solidified Portuguese naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean and marked a turning point in their efforts to control maritime trade routes. Almeida’s Blue Water Policy laid the foundation for Portuguese expansion and established them as a major power in the region.

Alfonso de Albuquerque’s Strategic Expansion and Control:

Alfonso de Albuquerque succeeded Almeida as the Portuguese governor in India and is considered the architect of Portuguese power in the East. Albuquerque’s vision extended beyond mere naval dominance; he sought to establish a network of strategic bases that would give Portugal control over all the entrances to the Indian Ocean.
Albuquerque’s strategy involved acquiring and fortifying key locations along the coast of East Africa, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf (Ormuz), the Malabar Coast, and the Strait of Malacca. These bases served as crucial outposts for Portuguese naval forces, enabling them to control maritime trade routes, protect their commercial interests, and project power throughout the region.
One of Albuquerque’s most significant achievements was the capture of Goa in 1510. Goa, a major port city on the west coast of India, became the headquarters of the Portuguese Estado da Índia, the colonial government that administered Portuguese territories in Asia. Albuquerque recognized the strategic importance of Goa and its potential as a center for trade and administration.
Under Albuquerque’s leadership, the Portuguese implemented a permit system for other ships operating in the Indian Ocean. This system allowed the Portuguese to regulate and control trade, ensuring that it primarily benefited their own interests. Additionally, Albuquerque focused on controlling major ship-building centers in the region, further consolidating Portuguese maritime power.
The lack of suitable timber for shipbuilding in the Gulf and Red Sea regions also worked in favor of the Portuguese. This scarcity of resources made it difficult for rival powers to build and maintain large fleets, giving the Portuguese a distinct advantage in naval warfare and trade control.
Albuquerque’s policies extended beyond military and economic control. He introduced social reforms in Goa, including the abolition of sati, a practice where widows were expected to immolate themselves on their husbands’ funeral pyres. Portuguese men were encouraged to marry local women, leading to the emergence of a mixed-race population known as Luso-Indians.

Nino da Cunha and Further Portuguese Expansion:

Nino da Cunha assumed the governorship of Portuguese India in 1529 and played a crucial role in expanding Portuguese influence in the region. One of his significant achievements was the relocation of the Portuguese headquarters from Cochin to Goa in 1530. Goa, with its strategic location and well-established infrastructure, proved to be a more suitable base for administering the growing Portuguese empire in Asia.
During da Cunha’s tenure, the Portuguese also sought to expand their influence in other parts of India. Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, seeking Portuguese support in his conflict with the Mughal emperor Humayun, ceded the island of Bassein to the Portuguese in 1534. However, relations between Bahadur Shah and the Portuguese deteriorated, and he was killed during negotiations in 1537.
Da Cunha also recognized the potential of Bengal as a center for trade and sought to establish a Portuguese presence there. He encouraged Portuguese nationals to settle in Bengal, with Hooghly serving as their headquarters. The Portuguese presence in Bengal gradually grew, and Hooghly became an important center for trade and cultural exchange.

Favorable Conditions for Portuguese Expansion in India

Several factors contributed to the Portuguese’s successful expansion in India during this period. One significant factor was the fragmented political landscape of India. The northern part of India was divided among numerous small kingdoms, while the Deccan region was witnessing the decline of the Bahmani Sultanate and the rise of several independent kingdoms. None of these powers possessed a navy capable of challenging Portuguese naval supremacy.
The lack of a unified Indian naval force allowed the Portuguese to exploit their technological and organizational advantages. Their ships were equipped with cannons, which gave them a decisive edge in naval battles. The Portuguese also benefited from a centralized and efficient colonial administration, which facilitated their expansion and consolidation of power.
In the Far East, Chinese maritime activities were restricted by imperial decree, limiting their ability to challenge Portuguese expansion. The Arab merchants and ship owners, who had long dominated Indian Ocean trade, lacked the organization and unity of the Portuguese. Their ships were also not as well-equipped for naval warfare.
These favourable conditions, combined with Portuguese naval power, strategic acumen, and ruthlessness, enabled them to establish a vast maritime empire in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese presence in India had a profound impact on the region’s history, shaping its political, economic, and cultural landscape for centuries to come.

Rules of Portuguese India

The extent of Portuguese influence in India is often underestimated. The Estado Português da Índia (State of Portuguese India) played a more substantial role in Indian history than is typically acknowledged. Within fifty years of Vasco da Gama’s arrival, the Portuguese had established control over significant coastal regions in India.

Portuguese Territorial Holdings:

On the west coast, the Portuguese held a sixty-mile stretch around Goa, encompassing a narrow tract from Mumbai to Daman and Diu, with four major ports and numerous towns and villages. In the south, they controlled a network of coastal fortresses and trading posts, including Mangalore, Cannanore, Cochin, and Calicut. Their influence extended beyond these holdings, allowing them to exert control or influence over local rulers in spice-growing regions. Additionally, the Portuguese established military posts and settlements on the east coast at San Thome (in Chennai) and Nagapatnam (in Andhra). By the late 16th century, a prosperous settlement had also emerged in Hooghly, West Bengal

Portuguese Involvement in Indian Politics:

The Portuguese maintained diplomatic relations with various major kingdoms in India, exchanging envoys and ambassadors. Treaties were signed and renewed with the Deccan sultans, ensuring their involvement in the region’s power struggles. The Portuguese played a role in the conflicts between Vijayanagara and the Deccan sultans, the Deccanis and the Mughals, and the Mughals and the Marathas. Their presence in India endured for centuries, making them the first Europeans to arrive and the last to leave, with Goa, Daman, and Diu only being recaptured by the Indian government in 1961.

Portuguese Administration in India:

The Portuguese administration in India was headed by a viceroy, who served a three-year term, supported by a secretary and, later, a council. The Vedor da Fazenda held the crucial responsibility of managing revenues, cargoes, and fleet dispatch. Fortresses spanning from Africa to China were under the command of captains, assisted by ‘factors’, whose power sometimes grew due to communication challenges and was occasionally misused for personal gain.

Portuguese Religious Policy:

Intolerance and Interactions with the Mughals The Portuguese arrived in the East with a fervent zeal to promote Christianity and persecute Muslims, mirroring their conflicts with Moors and Arabs in North Africa. Initially tolerant towards Hindus, their stance changed with the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa, leading to persecution of Hindus as well.

Despite this intolerance, Jesuit missionaries made a positive impression at Akbar’s court, primarily due to the Mughal emperor’s interest in theology. Akbar invited learned priests from Goa, hoping for their conversion and subsequent influence on his court and people. Jesuit fathers Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate were sent but returned in 1583 without achieving the desired conversion. Subsequent missions in 1590 and 1595 also failed to convert Akbar. However, the third mission, led by Fathers Jerome Xavier and Emanuel Pinheiro, remained as a permanent institution, influencing secular politics and providing valuable information about Akbar’s reign through their letters.
Jahangir, Akbar’s successor, initially neglected the Jesuits to appease Muslims. However, he eventually renewed his favour towards them, allowing them to retain their church and residence in Lahore. In 1608, numerous baptisms were conducted in Agra with the priests enjoying considerable freedom. The Jesuits hoped to convert Jahangir, but these hopes were ultimately dashed. Furthermore, the arrogant behaviour of Portuguese viceroys strained relations with the Mughal emperor, leading to further complications in their interactions

Conflicts with the Mughals and The Rise of English Competition

In 1608, Captain William Hawkins arrived in Surat with a letter from King James I of England, seeking trade permissions from the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Despite Portuguese opposition, Hawkins gained Jahangir’s favour due to his proficiency in the Turki language and was even appointed a mansabdar. This grant of trading rights to the English irked the Portuguese, but a truce was temporarily established. However, the Portuguese continued to obstruct English ships, leading to Hawkins’ departure in 1611.
The turning point came in 1612 when Captain Best aboard the English ship Dragon successfully battled a Portuguese fleet. This victory impressed Jahangir, who lacked a substantial navy, and further weakened the Portuguese position.Portuguese piracy exacerbated their conflict with the Mughal empire. In 1613, they captured Mughal ships, imprisoned Muslims, and plundered cargo, enraging Jahangir. While reparations were sought, it was under Shah Jahan’s reign that the Portuguese lost their privileged position in the Mughal court. Their hopes of converting the Mughal royalty to Christianity, nurtured during Akbar and Jahangir’s reigns, were dashed.

Capture of Hooghly and the Slave Trade:
The Portuguese had established a settlement in Hooghly, Bengal, based on a farman from 1579. Over time, they monopolized salt production, built a customs house, and strictly enforced taxes on tobacco, a lucrative new trade item. However, their actions extended beyond trade; they engaged in a cruel slave trade, capturing Hindu and Muslim children to raise as Christians. This included seizing slave girls belonging to Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan’s wife.
In 1632, the Mughals, led by Qasim Khan, besieged and captured Hooghly, forcing the Portuguese to flee. The Mughals offered the captured Portuguese the choice of conversion to Islam or slavery. The persecution of Christians persisted for a while before gradually subsiding.

The Decline of the Portuguese Empire in India

The Portuguese, once dominant in the Indian Ocean, experienced a gradual decline in the 18th century. While some individuals continued trading, their commercial influence waned, and some even turned to piracy. This decline stemmed from a confluence of factors that eroded their power and advantages:

Rise of Rival Powers and Local Resistance:
The emergence of powerful empires like the Mughals in North India, the Safavids in Persia, and the Mamluks in Egypt challenged Portuguese dominance. The rise of the Marathas, a formidable regional power, posed a direct threat to Portuguese territories, culminating in the capture of Salsette and Bassein in 1739. Additionally, growing local resistance and animosity towards Portuguese rule further weakened their position.

Religious Intolerance and Social Conflict:
The Portuguese’s aggressive promotion of Christianity through the activities of Jesuit missionaries and the establishment of the Inquisition in Goa alienated both Hindus and Muslims. The forced conversions, destruction of temples, and persecution of non-Christians fueled resentment and resistance among the local population. This religious intolerance created social unrest and contributed to the decline of Portuguese authority.

Trade Practices and Economic Challenges:
The Portuguese reputation for dishonesty, piracy, and exploitation of resources created further animosity among local rulers and the Mughal empire. Their focus on maximizing profits often led to unethical trade practices, damaging their relationships with Indian rulers and merchants. The discovery of Brazil shifted Portuguese attention and resources towards the Americas, diverting investment away from their Asian territories.

Loss of Monopoly and External Pressures:
The union of the Portuguese and Spanish crowns in 1580-81 dragged Portugal into Spain’s conflicts with England and the Netherlands. This strained Portuguese resources and weakened their ability to maintain their monopoly on trade in India. The Dutch and English, having acquired advanced naval technology and shipbuilding skills, successfully challenged Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean. They captured key Portuguese territories and trading posts, eroding Portuguese control over trade routes.

Internal Weaknesses and Shifting Priorities:
The Portuguese empire in India suffered from internal weaknesses, including corruption, administrative inefficiency, and a lack of resources. The distance from Portugal and the challenges of communication made effective governance difficult. As new economic opportunities emerged in the Americas, Portugal shifted its focus and resources away from Asia, further contributing to the decline of its Indian empire

Significance of the Portuguese in India

Despite their eventual decline, the Portuguese left an indelible mark on India’s history, introducing new concepts, technologies, and cultural influences that shaped the subcontinent’s trajectory. Their arrival marked the beginning of European colonialism in India and had a lasting impact on various aspects of Indian society:

Introduction of Naval Power and Military Innovations: The Portuguese were the first Europeans to establish a significant naval presence in the Indian Ocean. Their use of cannon-equipped ships and advanced naval tactics revolutionized warfare in the region. They demonstrated the importance of sea power in controlling trade routes and projecting military might. The Portuguese also introduced new military technologies, such as body armor, matchlocks, and ship-landed guns, which influenced Indian warfare and were later adopted by other European powers.

Impact on Trade and Economy: The Portuguese played a crucial role in establishing direct maritime trade routes between Europe and Asia, bypassing traditional intermediaries and reducing the cost of goods like spices. Their trading posts and factories facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas between the two continents. While their trade practices were often exploitative, they also stimulated economic activity and introduced new crops and agricultural techniques to India.

Cultural Exchange and Influence: The Portuguese brought with them their language, religion, and cultural traditions, which interacted with and influenced Indian society. The introduction of printing presses by the Portuguese led to the publication of books in Indian languages, contributing to the spread of literacy and knowledge. Portuguese architectural styles, particularly in churches and cathedrals, left a lasting imprint on the landscape of Goa and other former Portuguese territories.

Legacy of Resistance and Anti-Colonialism: The Portuguese presence in India also sparked resistance and anti-colonial movements. The brutality and exploitation of Portuguese rule led to uprisings and revolts by local communities. These movements laid the groundwork for future struggles against European colonialism in India.

A Catalyst for Change: The Portuguese arrival in India marked a turning point in the subcontinent’s history. It triggered a series of events that ultimately led to the colonization of India by other European powers. The Portuguese introduced new ideas, technologies, and systems of governance that had a lasting impact on Indian society. Their presence also stimulated trade and cultural exchange between India and Europe, contributing to the emergence of a globalized world